Input devices include:

Keyboard– a keyboard device for entering numeric and text information;

The standard keyboard contains:

1) a set of alphanumeric keys;

2) additional control and function keys;

3) cursor control keys;

4) small numeric keypad

Coordinate input devices- manipulators for controlling the cursor (Mouse, Trackball, Touchpad, Joystick)

In a mouse and trackball, the rotation of a metal ball coated with rubber is transmitted to two plastic shafts, the position of which is calculated by infrared optocouplers and then converted into an electrical signal that controls the movement of the mouse pointer on the screen. A touchpad is a manipulator for laptop computers, built into a PC; the cursor is moved by touching the touchpad with your fingers. Joystick – a manipulator for controlling electronic games.

Scanner– a device for inputting and converting images and texts into digital form. There are flatbed and handheld scanners.

Digital cameras– generate any images immediately in computer format;

Microphone– input of audio information. A sound card converts sound from analogue to digital form.

Touch input devices:

Touch screen- sensitive screen. Communication with the computer is carried out by touching a certain place on the screen with your finger. They are used to equip operator and dispatcher positions and are used in information and reference systems.

Digitizer– device for converting finished (paper) documents into digital form

Light pen– photosensitive element. If you move the pen around the screen, you can draw with it. Typically used in handheld computers, design and design systems

1. Keyboard. The keyboard keys are connected to a matrix of contacts. Each key or key combination is assigned its own number (code). There is a separate microprocessor inside the keyboard. Each press of a key closes a contact. In this case, in accordance with the contact matrix, the microprocessor generates a code for the pressed key. This code is stored in a special area (microprocessor buffer) and becomes available for processing by software. The keyboard driver is usually supplied with the operating system. This program allows the user to select the alphabet and implement the key layout.

All keys can be divided into the following groups:

Alphanumeric keys;

Cursor keys;

Special control keys;

Function keys;

Additional keyboard.

Function keys F1-F12 are located at the top of the keyboard. These keys are designed for various special actions; they are programmable and have their own purpose for each software product.

2. Manipulators. Mouse manipulator– a command input device, which is a small device with several keys. Moving the mouse pointer across the screen is done by moving the mouse across the table. There are mechanical, optical and wireless devices. The mechanical device consists of a rubber ball that rotates when the mouse moves, and two mutually perpendicular rollers. The roller rotation sensors transmit signals to the computer. The “tail” of wires through which signals travel gives the device the name “mouse.” Electronic motion devices use the principle of processing reflected light pulses from the surface on which the mouse moves. Such devices are much more reliable than mechanical ones. Mice are produced that transmit information to the computer via an infrared channel (wireless). The characteristic of a mouse is resolution. It is measured in dpi (dot per inch - dots per inch). If a mouse has a resolution of 900 dpi and is moved 1 inch (2.53 cm) to the right, then the mouse drive receives information through the microcontroller about a shift of 900 units to the right. The ballistic effect is the dependence of the accuracy of mouse positioning on the speed of its movement. The mouse driver is supplied with the device. Modern operating systems contain drivers for most manipulators of this type and automatically select the most suitable one when you turn on the computer.

Joystick- control device for computer games. It is a lever on a stand that can be tilted in two planes. The lever may contain various types of triggers and switches. The word “joystick” is also commonly used to refer to a control lever, for example, in a mobile phone.

Light pen– one of the tools for entering graphic data into a computer. Externally, it looks like a ballpoint pen or pencil connected by a wire to one of the computer’s I/O ports. Typically, a light pen has one or more buttons that can be pressed by the hand holding the pen. Inputting data using a light pen involves touching or drawing lines with the pen on the surface of the monitor screen. A photocell is installed in the tip of the pen, which registers the change in screen brightness at the point with which the pen comes into contact, due to which the corresponding software calculates the position “indicated” by the pen on the screen and can, depending on the need, interpret it in one way or another, usually as a reference to an object displayed on the screen or as a drawing command. The buttons are used similarly to the buttons of a mouse manipulator - to perform additional operations and enable additional modes.

3. Scanner– a device for converting graphic information into digital information. The function of a scanner is to obtain an electronic copy of a document created on paper. The lamp illuminates the scanned text, the reflected rays fall on a photocell consisting of many photosensitive cells. Each of them acquires an electrical charge when exposed to light. The analog-to-digital converter assigns a numerical value to each cell, and this data is transmitted to the computer. Scanners are hand-held and desktop (portable page or sheet-fed, flatbed, slide scanners, drum scanners); they can be black and white (up to 64 shades of gray) and color (256 - 16 million colors).

Hand-held scanners look like a large “mouse” that the user moves over the scanned image. However, manual movement of the device along the paper and the small size of the scanned area do not provide sufficient speed and require careful joining of individual sections of the image.

The main distinguishing feature of a flatbed scanner is that the scanning head moves relative to the stationary paper. They are simple and easy to use, allowing you to scan images from individual sheets, as well as from books and magazines.

With handheld page scanners, the paper moves relative to the scanning head. They are quite compact, but it is unlikely that you can scan a drawing from a book with them. This type of scanner is used to input document pages in formats from business cards to A4; the automatic paper feeding system ensures uniform scanning across the entire width of the sheet.

Slide scanners are highly specialized devices designed to capture images from transparent material (photographic film) with high resolution and image quality. They have a pronounced professional orientation and high cost.

Drum scanners are professional stationary devices designed for use in printing and scanning large-format images. The main advantages are high scanning speed and accuracy due to a permanently fixed scanning element and high uniformity of rotation of the drum with the scanned image placed on it.

The main characteristics are:

Resolution (optical resolution), that is, the number of recognizable dots (pixels) per inch;

Scanning speed is a performance indicator that is equal to the time spent processing one line of an image;

Dimensions of the scanned sheet (scanning area);

Bit width - determines the maximum number of colors or shades of gray that the scanner can perceive.

The scanner driver is designed to control the scanning process and configure basic scanner parameters. Sometimes drivers are supplemented with means for manipulating scanned images (change brightness, contrast, etc.). Scanners can be used to simply transfer pictures (photos, drawings, etc.) into computer memory or onto a display screen, or for quickly entering text documents. In the second case, it is necessary to extract (recognize) letters, numbers, spaces, tabs, columns from a graphic image, that is, convert the image into text format. Optical character recognition programs are designed to convert scanned texts into text codes.

4. Touch devices. Digitizer(graphics tablet) is a device for entering handwritten drawings directly into a computer. Consists of a pen and a flat tablet that is sensitive to pressure or proximity of the pen.

Main user characteristics:

The working area is usually equal to one of the standard paper formats (A7-A0);

Resolution – step of reading information;

The number of degrees of freedom describes the number of characteristics of the relative position of the tablet and the pen. The minimum number of degrees of freedom is 2 (X and Y positions of the projection of the sensitive center of the pen), additional degrees of freedom may include pressure, tilt of the pen relative to the plane of the tablet.

Touchpad(touchpad) is a pointing input device, most often used in laptops. Touchpads work by measuring the capacitance of your finger or measuring the capacitance between the sensors. Capacitive sensors are located along the vertical and horizontal axes of the touchpad, which allows you to determine the position of your finger with the required accuracy. Since the device operates by measuring capacitance, the touchpad will not work if you move a non-conductive object, such as the base of a pencil, over it.

Mouse! An animal whose path is littered with
fainting women.
S.Johnson

The user can control the operation of the computer using various devices: keyboard, joystick, trackball, mouse, touch screen, microphone, light pen, etc. The listed devices refer to information input devices.

Information input devices are used to convert information coming from peripheral devices into digital form.

Input devices such as a mouse, joystick, trackball, trackpoint, trackpad are sometimes called manipulators. The most famous information input device is the keyboard. The load on this device is perhaps the greatest. The keyboard is designed in such a way that each key can withstand 30-50 million keystrokes.

A mouse is a device that converts its position on a flat table surface into a cursor position on a display screen. Externally, the mouse is a box that moves around the table. A long cable connects the mouse to the system unit.

In Fig. 10.1. The design of the mouse is shown.

Rice. 10.1. Mouse design

The idea behind the operation of the manipulator is to convert mouse movements into electrical impulses generated using LEDs (light sources) and photodiodes (light receivers). When you move the mouse in the X direction, the rotation of the ball is transferred to disk 1. Disk 2 does not rotate at this time. The rotation of disk 1 leads to the fact that the light flux between LED 1 and photodiode 1 is periodically blocked by the teeth of the disk. At the output of the circuit connected to the photodiode, electrical pulses appear, the frequency of which is proportional to the speed of movement of the mouse (the speed of rotation of the ball).

When you move the mouse in the Y direction, disk 2 rotates, but disk 1 remains stationary. This allows the controller's circuitry to sense the direction of mouse movement and move the cursor across the display screen in sync with the mouse's movement.

If the mouse moves exactly halfway between the X and Y directions (vectors), then both disks rotate at the same speeds. Obviously, the direction of mouse movement can be any, and the ratio of the disk rotation speeds will be different.

It is convenient to work with the mouse on a special mat that improves the adhesion of the ball to the table surface. Sometimes the rug is jokingly called “armpit”.

In addition to the electromechanical mouse, an optical mouse has been developed.

It moves on a special tablet, on the surface of which a fine grid of multi-colored perpendicular lines is applied. A special photoelectric unit determines the direction and speed of mouse movement. This design has no mechanical parts and is more reliable.

A trackball (hand-held trackball) is a device (Fig. 10.2) in which the cursor moves by rotating a ball that partially protrudes above a flat surface. As a result of the rotation of the ball, optical sensors generate pulses corresponding to the speed and direction of rotation of the ball. A trackball is an inverted electromechanical mouse, only the ball in it is rotated by hand.

Rice. 10.2. Trackball

Touch screen. When choosing objects (for example, in a store), a person sometimes points to the desired object with his finger. This is how information is entered into a computer using touch screens (SE).

According to the principle of operation, solar cells are divided into ultrasonic, photoelectric, resistive and capacitive screens. The main task of the SE is to determine the coordinate of the finger touching the screen. Having determined the coordinate, you can then use the menu to control the operation of the computer.

In ultrasonic solar cells, ultrasonic transducers (sensors) are placed at the edges of the screen, which create acoustic waves on the surface of the screen. Ultrasonic vibrations spread across the monitor glass like circles on water. Ultrasonic transducers simultaneously perform the functions of a transmitter and receiver of acoustic waves. The travel time from the transmitter to the receiver is constant if the acoustic wave does not encounter any disturbing object (finger). The point of contact can be determined quite accurately by echolocation by measuring the time of arrival of the reflected waves. Similarly, at an airport, radar determines the distance to the aircraft.

In a photovoltaic solar panel, the monitor is illuminated by lines of LEDs located along the bottom and right edges of the display. Lines of photodiodes are installed on the left and top sides of the screen. As a result, a matrix of light rays is formed, the darkening of which allows you to determine the vertical and horizontal coordinates of touching the screen. Capacitive solar cells are a matrix of capacitors that change their capacitance at the point of contact with the screen. In resistive solar cells, the electrical resistance of two contacting films is measured.

A light pen is a pencil-shaped device that senses light from a display's phosphor. The sensitive element is a photodiode or phototransistor. Counting the number of raster lines allows you to determine the vertical coordinate, and counting the time from the beginning of the line formation until the moment the pen is triggered gives the horizontal coordinate. To enter patterns of complex shapes, a mode is used in which a luminous path (contour) is formed under the tip of the light pen.

Digital (graphics) tablets - digitizers provide transfer of an image from an overlaid sheet of paper to a computer by moving a special pointer across the tablet. Digitizers allow you to create drawings immediately in electronic form. Working with a graphics tablet is similar to drawing with a pencil. They are especially convenient for creating line drawings and drawings.

The graphics tablet has a high resolution (over 2500 dpi versus 200...400 dpi for a mouse). Note that the symbols dpi mean the number of dots per inch (dot per inch).

When in contact with the surface of the tablet, the pointer becomes sensitive to pressure (256 levels, or gradations) and tilt relative to the plane of the tablet.

Rice. 10.3. Simplified scanner design

The scanner provides input of a flat image into RAM. The scanner eliminates the tedious procedure of entering text using the keyboard and creating a picture using the mouse. The resulting copy of the image can be edited: change the scale, add and remove details, change color, etc. An electronic copy of the image can be stored for a long time on magnetic or optical media.

According to their design, scanners can be hand-held, flatbed, drum, projection, etc. In Fig. 10.3. a simplified scanner design is shown.

The copied image is illuminated by a light source (usually a fluorescent lamp). In this case, a beam of light examines (scans, unfolds) each section of the original. A beam of light reflected from a paper sheet hits a charge-coupled device (CCD) through an optical system.

A reduced image of the copied object is formed on the surface of the CCD by scanning. The CCD converts optical images into electrical signals.

A CCD is a matrix (a rectangular table shown in Fig. 10.4) that contains a large number of semiconductor elements (for example, 2000 × 2000 elements) that are sensitive to light radiation. In this case, in black-and-white line scanners, a logical one signal is generated at the output of illuminated elements using the controller, and a logical zero signal is generated at the output of unlit elements. Line black and white scanners are used to copy drawings.

Rice. 10.4. Charge-coupled device

There are halftone black-and-white scanners in which several (for example, 256) shades (levels) of gray are formed at the output of each CCD element using an analog-to-digital converter. This design of scanners allows you to copy black and white photographs and drawings.

In color scanners, illumination of the copied image is carried out either from three multi-colored light sources, or from a white light source, but alternately through a three-color filter.

When scanning in color, an image is formed in halftone (gray) mode with various filters or light sources (red, blue, green). The signal from the output of each CCD element is encoded with 8 bits, which gives 256 shades of gray. As a result of this conversion, more than 16.7 million possible color shades can be obtained (24-bit encoding, 3 colors of 8 bits).

There are scanners whose resolution is 600...1200 dpi. Thanks to mathematical image processing (interpolation), you can get a resolution of even 1600 dpi.

The use of the scanner is combined with image recognition systems such as OCR (Optical Character Recognition). The OCR system recognizes mosaic portraits of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation marks) read by the scanner from a document and converts them into bytes in accordance with the code table. Thanks to the OCR system, you can read typewritten and handwritten texts. True, in the latter case, complex image recognition algorithms based on the theory of artificial intelligence are used.

Three-dimensional images (buildings, cars, etc.) are entered into computers using digital cameras.

Games often use a joystick - a lever with which you can direct, for example, a plane to the right, left, up, down.

In the future, the operation of computers will be controlled primarily by voice, using a microphone.

To Input devices refer to those standard devices that allow you to transfer information from the user to the computer.

• Keyboard;
• Mouse, trackball or touchpad;
• Joystick;
• Scanner;
• Graphics tablet (digitizer).

Keyboard – keyboard control device for a personal computer. Serves to enter alphanumeric (character) data, as well as control commands.

The keyboard is one of the standard features of a personal computer.Its main functions do not require support from special system programs (drivers).

A standard keyboard has more than 100 keys, functionally distributed into several groups:

• A group of alphanumeric keys is intended for entering character information and commands typed by letter.
• Each key can operate in several modes (registers) and, accordingly, can be used to enter several characters.
• Switching between lower case (for entering lowercase characters) and upper case (for entering uppercase characters) is performed by holding the SHIFT key (non-fixed switching).
• If you need to rigidly switch the register, use the CAPS LOCK key (fixed switching).
• For different languages, there are different schemes for assigning symbols of national alphabets to specific alphanumeric keys. These layouts are called keyboard layouts.
• For IBM PC personal computers, the standard layouts are QWERTY (English) and YTSUKENG (Russian).
• Layouts are usually named after the symbols assigned to the first keys of the top line of the alphabetical group.
• The function key group includes twelve keys (F1 to F12) located at the top of the keyboard.
• The functions assigned to these keys depend on the properties of the specific program currently running, and in some cases, on the properties of the operating system.
• It is a common convention for most programs that the F1 key calls up the help system, where you can find help about the actions of other keys.
• Service keys are located next to the alphanumeric group keys. Due to the fact that they have to be used especially often, they have an increased size. These include the SHIFT and ENTER keys discussed above, the register keys ALT and CTRL (they are used in combination with other keys to form commands), the TAB key (for entering tab stops when typing), the ESC key (from the English word Escape) to refuse from executing the last command entered and the BACKSPACE key to delete the characters just entered (it is located above the ENTER key and is often marked with an arrow pointing to the left).
• The service keys PRINT SCREEN, SCROLL LOCK and PAUSE/BREAK are located to the right of the group of function keys and perform specific functions depending on the operating system.
• Two groups of cursor keys are located to the right of the alphanumeric pad.
• A cursor is a screen element that indicates the location for entering character information.
• The cursor is used when working with programs that enter data and commands from the keyboard.
• The cursor keys allow you to control the input position.
• The keyboard is the main data input device.
• Special keyboards are designed to improve the efficiency of the data entry process.
• This is achieved by changing the shape of the keyboard, the layout of its keys, or the method of connection to the system unit.

Keyboards that have a special shape designed to meet ergonomic requirements are called ergonomic keyboards.

Ergonomic keyboards not only increase typist productivity and reduce overall fatigue during the workday, but also reduce the likelihood and severity of a number of diseases, such as carpal tunnel syndrome and osteochondrosis of the upper spine.

Mouse– manipulator-type control device.Moving the mouse on a flat surface is synchronized with the movement of a graphic object (mouse pointer) on the monitor screen.

Unlike the keyboard discussed earlier, the mouse is not a standard control, and the personal computer does not have a dedicated port for it. There is no permanent dedicated interrupt for the mouse, and the computer's basic input and output system (BIOS), located in read-only memory (ROM), does not contain software to handle mouse interrupts.Due to this, the mouse does not work the first moment after turning on the computer. It requires the support of a special system program - a mouse driver.The driver is installed either when you connect the mouse for the first time, or when installing the computer's operating system.Although the mouse does not have a dedicated port on the motherboard, to work with it, use one of the standard ports, tools for working with which are included in the BIOS.The mouse driver is designed to interpret the signals coming through the port. In addition, it provides a mechanism for communicating information about the position and state of the mouse to the operating system and running programs.The computer is controlled by moving the mouse along the plane and briefly pressing the right and left buttons (These presses are called clicks.)Unlike a keyboard, a mouse cannot be directly used to enter character information - its control principle is event-based.Mouse movements and mouse button clicks are events from the point of view of its driver program.

A standard mouse has only two buttons, although there are custom mice with three buttons or two buttons and one rotary control.Recently, mice with a scroll wheel located between two buttons and allowing scrolling in any Windows application have become increasingly common.

In addition to a regular mouse, there are other types of manipulators, for example: trackballs, penmouses, infrared mice.The trackball, unlike a mouse, is installed stationary, and its ball is driven by the palm of the hand.

The advantage of a trackball is that it does not require a smooth working surface, which is why trackballs are widely used in portable personal computers.

Penmouse is an analogue of a ballpoint pen, at the end of which, instead of a writing unit, there is a unit that records the amount of movement.

An infrared mouse differs from a regular mouse in the presence of a wireless communication device with the system unit.

For computer games and in some specialized simulators, lever-type manipulators (joysticks) and similar joypads, gamepads and steering-pedal devices are also used. Devices of this type are connected to a special port on the sound card or to a USB port.

Touchpad(English touchpad - touch pad), touch panel - a pointing input device, used most often in laptops.

Like other pointing devices, a touchpad is typically used to control the "pointer" by moving your finger across the surface of the device.

Touchpads are fairly low resolution devices. This allows you to use them in everyday work at the computer (office applications, web browsers, logic games), but makes it very difficult to work in graphic editors.

However, touchpads also have a number of advantages compared to other manipulators:

• do not require a flat surface (unlike a mouse);
• do not require a lot of space (unlike a mouse or graphics tablet); the location of the touchpad is fixed relative to the keyboard (unlike a mouse);
• To move the cursor across the entire screen, you only need to move your finger a little (unlike a mouse or a large graphics tablet);
• working with them does not require much getting used to, as, for example, in the case of a trackball.

Joystick- control device for computer games.

It is a lever on a stand that can be tilted in two planes.The lever may contain various types of triggers and switches.

Scanner– a device for inputting graphic images into a computer. A sheet of paper with an image is placed into the scanner. The device reads it and sends it to the computer in digital form. During scanning, a powerful lamp and a ruler with many light-sensitive elements located on it in a row move smoothly along the sheet with the image. Typically, photodiodes are used as photosensitive elements. Each photosensitive element produces a signal proportional to the brightness of the reflected light from the section of paper located opposite it. The brightness of the reflected beam changes because the bright areas of the scanned image are much more reflective than the dark areas covered with paint. Color scanners have three groups of photosensitive elements that process red, green and blue colors, respectively. Thus, each point in the image is encoded as a combination of signals produced by photosensitive elements of the red, green and blue groups. The signal encoded in this way is transmitted to the scanner controller in the system unit.

Distinguish hand-held, pull-through and flatbed scanners. In hand-held scanners, the user himself guides the scanner along the surface of the image or text. Stretch scanners are designed to scan images on sheets of only a certain size. The pulling device of such scanners sequentially moves all sections of the scanned sheet over a stationary photosensitive matrix. The most widely used are flatbed scanners, which allow you to scan paper sheets, books and other objects containing images. Such scanners consist of a plastic case covered with a lid. The upper surface of the body is made of optically transparent material, on which the scanned image is placed. After this, the image is covered with a lid and scanning is performed. During the scanning process, a lamp with a light-sensitive matrix moves under the glass.

The main characteristics of scanners are reading speed, which is expressed by the number of pages scanned per minute (pages per minute - ppm), and resolution, expressed by the number of dots of the resulting image per inch of the original (dots per inch - dpi).

In modern tablets, the main working part is also a network of wires (or printed conductors), similar to the one in the Grafacons. This grid has a fairly large pitch (3-6 mm), but the mechanism for registering the position of the pen allows you to obtain a step for reading information much smaller than the grid pitch (up to 200 lines per mm).

There are different types of tablets based on their operating principle and technology. INelectrostatictablets register a local change in electrical n potential grids under the feather. INelectromagnetic- the pen emits electricity electromagnetic waves, and the grid serves as a receiver. In both cases, power must be supplied to the pen.

Wacom created technology based on electromagnetic resonance , when the grid both emits and receives a signal. In this case, the signal emitted by the grid is used to power the pen, which, in turn, sends a response signal, which is not just a reflection of the original one, but a newly generated one, which, as a rule, carries additional information identifying a specific pen, as well as data on the pressure applied, fixation/position of controls on the pointer, whether the working tip of the pen or its “eraser” is used (if such functions are provided in it). Therefore, no separate power supply is required for such a device. But when operating electromagnetic tablets, interference from emitting devices is possible, in particular monitors. Some are based on the same operating principle. touchpads.

There are tablets that come with pens that can register pressure. Typically, the registration mechanism is based on the use of variable capacitor. In particular, this type of sensor is used in pens for Wacom tablets. Registration can also be done using component with variable resistance or variable inductance . There are implementations based onpiezoelectric effect. When you press the pen within the working surface of the tablet, under which a grid of conductors is laid, a potential difference arises on the piezoelectric plate, which allows you to determine the coordinates of the desired point. Such tablets do not require a special pen at all and allow you to draw on the working surface of the tablet as on a regular drawing board.

In addition to pen coordinates, modern graphics tablets can also determine pressure pen on the working surface, tilt, direction of rotation in the plane of the tablet and the force of compression of the pen with your hand.

Also, a set of graphics tablets may include a mouse together with a pen, which, however, does not work like a regular one.computer mouse, but on the same principle as the pen. This mouse can only work on a tablet. Since the resolution of a tablet is much higher than the resolution of a conventional computer mouse, using a mouse + tablet combination allows you to achieve significantly higher accuracy when entering.

Graphics tablets are used both for creating images on a computer in a way that is as close as possible to how images are created on paper, and for general work with interfaces that do not require relative input (although entering relative movements using a tablet is possible, it is often inconvenient).

In addition, they are convenient to use for transferring (rendering) ready-made images to a computer.

Did you know, What is the falsity of the concept of “physical vacuum”?

Physical vacuum - the concept of relativistic quantum physics, by which they mean the lowest (ground) energy state of a quantized field, which has zero momentum, angular momentum and other quantum numbers. Relativistic theorists call a physical vacuum a space completely devoid of matter, filled with an unmeasurable, and therefore only imaginary, field. Such a state, according to relativists, is not an absolute void, but a space filled with some phantom (virtual) particles. Relativistic quantum field theory states that, in accordance with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, virtual, that is, apparent (apparent to whom?), particles are constantly born and disappeared in the physical vacuum: so-called zero-point field oscillations occur. Virtual particles of the physical vacuum, and therefore itself, by definition, do not have a reference system, since otherwise Einstein’s principle of relativity, on which the theory of relativity is based, would be violated (that is, an absolute measurement system with reference to the particles of the physical vacuum would become possible, which in turn would clearly refute the principle of relativity on which the SRT is based). Thus, the physical vacuum and its particles are not elements of the physical world, but only elements of the theory of relativity, which do not exist in the real world, but only in relativistic formulas, while violating the principle of causality (they appear and disappear without cause), the principle of objectivity (virtual particles can be considered, depending on the desire of the theorist, either existing or non-existent), the principle of factual measurability (not observable, do not have their own ISO).

When one or another physicist uses the concept of “physical vacuum,” he either does not understand the absurdity of this term, or is disingenuous, being a hidden or overt adherent of relativistic ideology.

The easiest way to understand the absurdity of this concept is to turn to the origins of its occurrence. It was born by Paul Dirac in the 1930s, when it became clear that denying the ether in its pure form, as was done by a great mathematician but a mediocre physicist, was no longer possible. There are too many facts that contradict this.

To defend relativism, Paul Dirac introduced the aphysical and illogical concept of negative energy, and then the existence of a “sea” of two energies compensating each other in a vacuum - positive and negative, as well as a “sea” of particles compensating each other - virtual (that is, apparent) electrons and positrons in a vacuum.